Tribal Nations in the United States are recognized as sovereign governments with authority over their lands and citizens, a status that predates the founding of the country. The U.S. government continues to recognize this sovereignty through legal frameworks and treaties, although terminology such as “Tribes” or “Indian” remains prevalent due to its use in federal law.
Advocates recommend using “Tribal Nation” and “Tribal citizen” when possible, as these terms more accurately describe political status and sovereignty. Citizenship within Tribal Nations is determined by each nation’s laws and should not be confused with membership in private organizations.
In 1924, the United States granted citizenship to all Tribal citizens born within its borders. While this action was viewed by some as an infringement on Tribal self-determination, it resulted in Tribal citizens holding civil rights like other Americans. However, challenges remain, including ongoing violations of civil rights such as barriers to voting participation for Tribal citizens.
Tribal citizens pay federal and state taxes but are generally exempt from state taxes when living on reservations. Off-reservation, they may be subject to state taxation. The revenue contributed by Tribal Nations and their citizens supports federal, state, and local economies, especially in states with significant Tribal land bases like Oklahoma.
The relationship between Tribal Nations and the United States is defined by government-to-government interactions similar to those between the U.S. and other countries. Numerous treaties outline obligations that the federal government has toward Tribal Nations. These treaty obligations are supported by the U.S. Constitution, congressional acts, executive actions, and court decisions.
A unique aspect of this relationship is the federal trust responsibility: a legal obligation requiring the United States to protect treaty rights, lands, assets, resources, and uphold mandates concerning American Indian and Alaska Native tribes. This responsibility stems from historical agreements where Tribal Nations exchanged land for guarantees including protection of territory, healthcare, education, and continued access to traditional resources.
Legal interpretations often favor Tribal Nations when there is ambiguity in treaties due to historic inequities during negotiations. As former NARF Staff Attorney Walter R. Echo-Hawk stated in a video produced with NPR: “A lot of people disregard our treaties and say they’re a thing of the past, they’ve been broken, let’s forget about it. They’d like to wipe away the treaty history of the United States, but that’s just not how it works.”
Federal statutes such as the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (25 U.S.C. § 3010) require agencies to safeguard Native American remains; similarly, the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (42 U.S.C. § 1996) protects Indigenous religions—both reflecting aspects of trust responsibility.
The distinction between race-based classifications and political status is emphasized by advocates: “While the United States Constitution has an Equal Protection clause to ensure equal application of the law no matter an American citizen’s race, Tribal citizenship is a political status and treaty obligations have nothing to do with race,” said Native American Rights Fund Deputy Director Matthew L. Campbell. “Misunderstanding the difference between the political status of citizenship and a designation of concepts like race has limited people’s understanding of Tribal-U.S. relations for centuries.”
Governance among Tribes operates within overlapping jurisdictions involving tribal, federal, state, and local authorities—a complex system often leading to disputes over legal authority or applicable law.
As of 2025 there are 574 federally recognized Tribal Nations in the United States; Alaska alone accounts for 229 distinct entities with their own governments—separate from Alaska Native Corporations established under ANCSA (Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act), which are for-profit entities rather than sovereign governments.
Globally Indigenous Peoples have sought representation at international forums such as the United Nations (UN). The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples adopted in 2007 sets standards for recognition and protection of Indigenous rights worldwide; several U.S.-level policies reference principles from this declaration.
Organizations such as Native American Rights Fund (NARF) provide legal assistance nationwide on issues affecting sovereignty or individual rights for Tribes or Native individuals who might otherwise lack representation.
